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拍品專文
Wearing the robes of a Buddhist monk and holding its hands in a ritual gesture known as a mudra—手印 or 印相—his rare, seventeenth-century sculpture from Korea’s Joseon dynasty resembles a Buddha; in fact, however, it represents a bodhisattva, as indicated by the earrings and the high topknot of hair that rises from the from the top of the head. A tall, elaborate crown originally completed the sculpture, concealing from view the head’s otherwise plain top and enclosing the towering bun of hair, which itself might have been surmounted by a golden ball. The sculpture possibly was once outfitted with such removable articles of jewelry as a necklace and bracelets.
A bodhisattva is a benevolent being who has attained enlightenment but who has selflessly postponed entry into nirvana in order to assist other sentient beings in gaining enlightenment. Meaning “enlightened being”, a bodhisattva is an altruistic being who is dedicated to assisting other sentient beings in achieving release from the samsara cycle of birth and rebirth through the attainment of enlightenment; bodhisattvas thus embody the Mahayana Buddhist ideal of delivering all living creatures from suffering. Thanks to the enormous stores they have amassed, bodhisattvas are able to assist others through the transfer of meritorious karma to those in need, a concept known in Sanskrit as parinamana and in Chinese as huixiang.
As evinced by this compelling sculpture, bodhisattvas generally are depicted with a single head, two arms, and two legs, though they in fact may be shown with multiple heads and limbs, depending upon the individual bodhisattva and the particular manifestation as described in the sutras, or sacred texts. Bodhisattvas, who may be presented either standing or seated, are represented with long hair often arranged in a tall coiffure, or bun, atop the head and often with long strands of hair cascading over the shoulders; in this sculpture, in addition to the tall topknot, a long strand of hair falls from each of the figure’s temples, crosses the earlobe, and rests on the shoulder. Although bodhisattvas typically wear ornamental scarves, dhotis of rich silk brocade, and a wealth of jewelry, a few bodhisattvas, such as Kshitigarbha, are presented in the guise of a monk; moreover, in Joseon-dynasty Korea, and particularly from the seventeenth century onward, a number of bodhisattvas, including the present one, are presented in monks’ robes.
This bodhisattva holds his lowered right hand in a variant of the varada-mudra, or gift-giving gesture. (A ritual hand gesture, a mudra symbolizes a particular action, power, or attitude of a deity.) He holds his raised left hand in a variant of the abhaya-mudra, a preaching gesture in which the hand is raised in the attitude of “do not fear”. This combination of mudras—often shortened to read abhaya-vara-mudra—indicates that the deity is preaching. This figure’s gestures are considered variants of the standard mudras, as the thumb and index finger of each hand curve to form a “C”, whereas the fingers do not so curve in the standard mudras. Even so, these variant forms are to be distinguished from the mudras associated with the Buddha Amitabha, whose hands are positioned so that one finger of each hand touches the thumb, forming a circle (indicating the level of paradise on which he is meditating or preaching).
As the hands of many Buddhist deities are shown in the abhaya-vara-mudra, this gesture does not identify the particular deity that this sculpture represents. In fact, the iconographic attribute, or symbol, that originally identified this particularly bodhisattva was featured in the now-lost crown, so it is impossible now to know just which bodhisattva the sculpture portrays.
Given its large size, it is possible that this sculpture served as the main deity on a temple altar; at the same time, it is also possible that it originally was one member of a Buddhist triad, with a Buddha at the center flanked on either side by a bodhisattva. When a bodhisattva with hands held in the abhaya-vara-mudra serves as the major deity on an altar, it typically is the right hand that is raised in the abhaya-mudra, with the left hand lowered in the varada-mudra; that this figure’s left hand is raised suggests that this sculpture likely was part of a triad and sat to the (viewer’s) right of the Buddha, as Joseon-period triads typically show the flanking figures with outer hands raised, as if in a gesture protective of the Buddha.
Of course, the sculpture might represent Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of infinite compassion—who is known in Korean as Gwanse’eum Bosal, or more simply as Gwan’eum Bosal—or Mahasthamaprapta, the bodhisattva of the power of wisdom, who is known in Korean as Daeseji Bosal, both of whom were popular in Joseon Korea. Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta traditionally are associated with the Buddha Amitabha; if the sculpture indeed represents one of those bodhisattvas, then perhaps it originally was part of an Amitabha triad. If this sculpture represents Avalokiteshvara, a small image of Amitabha would have appeared in the now-lost crown as the bodhisattva’s iconographic attribute, as Avalokiteshvara is regarded as a spiritual emanation of Amitabha. On the other hand, it this sculpture represents Mahasthamaprapta, then a long-necked water bottle or covered jar, symbolizing wisdom, would have appeared in the crown as the figure’s identifying emblem. For an Amitabha triad with Bodhisattvas Kshitigarbha and Avalokiteshvara flanking Amitabha, see the fifteenth-century bronze sculpture in the Cleveland Museum of Art (1918.501).
Apart from its missing crown, this sculpture shows a remarkable kinship in both style and general appearance to a 1670-dated sculpture of Mahasthamaprapta by Buddhist sculptor Seung’il at Gobang-sa Temple in Gimcheon City, North Gyeongsang province. In particular, the treatment of the present sculpture’s drapery is very similar to that of the Gobang-sa Temple sculpture, with the subtle, diagonal fold in the undergarment’s upper edge (immediately below the chest) and with the wide fold that curves dramatically downward and fills the space between the figure’s knees. Even closer in treatment is the wide, square face with small chin, low-set mouth, and rounded jaw. Adhering closely to the sides of the head, the ears, too, are virtually identical in the two sculptures, each ear with a consistently wide, unmodulated, flat helix—i.e., the curving rim around the outside of the ear—with a similarly shaped, triangular tragus (the small projection at the “front” of the ear), and with deep incisions—indeed, virtually “gouges”—to describe the fossa (i.e., the small, triangular indentation at the top of the ear). Even the long strands of hair that descend from the temple, cross the earlobes, and rest on shoulders are nearly identical. The similarity in style permits a tentative attribution of the present sculpture to the school of Buddhist sculptor Seung’il (c. 1600–c. 1670), who was based in North Gyeongsang province, but who created sculptures for temples in many areas of Korea. The close relationship of this sculpture to those by sculptors of the Seung’il school also permits this sculpture to be dated to the second half of the seventeenth century, when that school was most active.
Although most early Korean Buddhist sculptures were carved in stone or cast in bronze, many Joseon-period sculptures were carved in wood, though others were cast in bronze or silver. Like early stone sculptures, which were painted, many of the Joseon wood sculpture were painted, but some, like the present example were gilded, the lips and eyes usually with touches of pigment, and the hair often coated with black lacquer.
Held in place by both friction and an adhesive, a gilded wood plate covers a large opening on this figure’s back—midway between the shoulder blades; its presence suggests that the sculpture either contains, or once contained, dedicatory objects that were placed within the hollow interior at the time of its consecration in order to enliven the image and grant it efficacy. Such consecratory objects typically include miniature scrolls—usually short sutras or excerpts from a sutra—beads, seeds, textile fragments, and sometimes miniature sculptures. Religious in nature, such items seldom are dated and rarely include any information that would convey insight into the sculpture’s place or other circumstances of manufacture.
In addition to the 1670-dated Gobang-sa sculpture mentioned above, this sculpture is similar in style and general appearance to one in the National Museum of Korea, Seoul (accession number Sinsu 14492) and to another in the Harn Museum of Art in Gainesville, FL (2008.20), the Harn Museum example also associated with the school of Seung’il.
Robert D. Mowry
Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus,
Harvard Art Museums, and
Senior Consultant, Christie’s
A bodhisattva is a benevolent being who has attained enlightenment but who has selflessly postponed entry into nirvana in order to assist other sentient beings in gaining enlightenment. Meaning “enlightened being”, a bodhisattva is an altruistic being who is dedicated to assisting other sentient beings in achieving release from the samsara cycle of birth and rebirth through the attainment of enlightenment; bodhisattvas thus embody the Mahayana Buddhist ideal of delivering all living creatures from suffering. Thanks to the enormous stores they have amassed, bodhisattvas are able to assist others through the transfer of meritorious karma to those in need, a concept known in Sanskrit as parinamana and in Chinese as huixiang.
As evinced by this compelling sculpture, bodhisattvas generally are depicted with a single head, two arms, and two legs, though they in fact may be shown with multiple heads and limbs, depending upon the individual bodhisattva and the particular manifestation as described in the sutras, or sacred texts. Bodhisattvas, who may be presented either standing or seated, are represented with long hair often arranged in a tall coiffure, or bun, atop the head and often with long strands of hair cascading over the shoulders; in this sculpture, in addition to the tall topknot, a long strand of hair falls from each of the figure’s temples, crosses the earlobe, and rests on the shoulder. Although bodhisattvas typically wear ornamental scarves, dhotis of rich silk brocade, and a wealth of jewelry, a few bodhisattvas, such as Kshitigarbha, are presented in the guise of a monk; moreover, in Joseon-dynasty Korea, and particularly from the seventeenth century onward, a number of bodhisattvas, including the present one, are presented in monks’ robes.
This bodhisattva holds his lowered right hand in a variant of the varada-mudra, or gift-giving gesture. (A ritual hand gesture, a mudra symbolizes a particular action, power, or attitude of a deity.) He holds his raised left hand in a variant of the abhaya-mudra, a preaching gesture in which the hand is raised in the attitude of “do not fear”. This combination of mudras—often shortened to read abhaya-vara-mudra—indicates that the deity is preaching. This figure’s gestures are considered variants of the standard mudras, as the thumb and index finger of each hand curve to form a “C”, whereas the fingers do not so curve in the standard mudras. Even so, these variant forms are to be distinguished from the mudras associated with the Buddha Amitabha, whose hands are positioned so that one finger of each hand touches the thumb, forming a circle (indicating the level of paradise on which he is meditating or preaching).
As the hands of many Buddhist deities are shown in the abhaya-vara-mudra, this gesture does not identify the particular deity that this sculpture represents. In fact, the iconographic attribute, or symbol, that originally identified this particularly bodhisattva was featured in the now-lost crown, so it is impossible now to know just which bodhisattva the sculpture portrays.
Given its large size, it is possible that this sculpture served as the main deity on a temple altar; at the same time, it is also possible that it originally was one member of a Buddhist triad, with a Buddha at the center flanked on either side by a bodhisattva. When a bodhisattva with hands held in the abhaya-vara-mudra serves as the major deity on an altar, it typically is the right hand that is raised in the abhaya-mudra, with the left hand lowered in the varada-mudra; that this figure’s left hand is raised suggests that this sculpture likely was part of a triad and sat to the (viewer’s) right of the Buddha, as Joseon-period triads typically show the flanking figures with outer hands raised, as if in a gesture protective of the Buddha.
Of course, the sculpture might represent Avalokiteshvara, the bodhisattva of infinite compassion—who is known in Korean as Gwanse’eum Bosal, or more simply as Gwan’eum Bosal—or Mahasthamaprapta, the bodhisattva of the power of wisdom, who is known in Korean as Daeseji Bosal, both of whom were popular in Joseon Korea. Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta traditionally are associated with the Buddha Amitabha; if the sculpture indeed represents one of those bodhisattvas, then perhaps it originally was part of an Amitabha triad. If this sculpture represents Avalokiteshvara, a small image of Amitabha would have appeared in the now-lost crown as the bodhisattva’s iconographic attribute, as Avalokiteshvara is regarded as a spiritual emanation of Amitabha. On the other hand, it this sculpture represents Mahasthamaprapta, then a long-necked water bottle or covered jar, symbolizing wisdom, would have appeared in the crown as the figure’s identifying emblem. For an Amitabha triad with Bodhisattvas Kshitigarbha and Avalokiteshvara flanking Amitabha, see the fifteenth-century bronze sculpture in the Cleveland Museum of Art (1918.501).
Apart from its missing crown, this sculpture shows a remarkable kinship in both style and general appearance to a 1670-dated sculpture of Mahasthamaprapta by Buddhist sculptor Seung’il at Gobang-sa Temple in Gimcheon City, North Gyeongsang province. In particular, the treatment of the present sculpture’s drapery is very similar to that of the Gobang-sa Temple sculpture, with the subtle, diagonal fold in the undergarment’s upper edge (immediately below the chest) and with the wide fold that curves dramatically downward and fills the space between the figure’s knees. Even closer in treatment is the wide, square face with small chin, low-set mouth, and rounded jaw. Adhering closely to the sides of the head, the ears, too, are virtually identical in the two sculptures, each ear with a consistently wide, unmodulated, flat helix—i.e., the curving rim around the outside of the ear—with a similarly shaped, triangular tragus (the small projection at the “front” of the ear), and with deep incisions—indeed, virtually “gouges”—to describe the fossa (i.e., the small, triangular indentation at the top of the ear). Even the long strands of hair that descend from the temple, cross the earlobes, and rest on shoulders are nearly identical. The similarity in style permits a tentative attribution of the present sculpture to the school of Buddhist sculptor Seung’il (c. 1600–c. 1670), who was based in North Gyeongsang province, but who created sculptures for temples in many areas of Korea. The close relationship of this sculpture to those by sculptors of the Seung’il school also permits this sculpture to be dated to the second half of the seventeenth century, when that school was most active.
Although most early Korean Buddhist sculptures were carved in stone or cast in bronze, many Joseon-period sculptures were carved in wood, though others were cast in bronze or silver. Like early stone sculptures, which were painted, many of the Joseon wood sculpture were painted, but some, like the present example were gilded, the lips and eyes usually with touches of pigment, and the hair often coated with black lacquer.
Held in place by both friction and an adhesive, a gilded wood plate covers a large opening on this figure’s back—midway between the shoulder blades; its presence suggests that the sculpture either contains, or once contained, dedicatory objects that were placed within the hollow interior at the time of its consecration in order to enliven the image and grant it efficacy. Such consecratory objects typically include miniature scrolls—usually short sutras or excerpts from a sutra—beads, seeds, textile fragments, and sometimes miniature sculptures. Religious in nature, such items seldom are dated and rarely include any information that would convey insight into the sculpture’s place or other circumstances of manufacture.
In addition to the 1670-dated Gobang-sa sculpture mentioned above, this sculpture is similar in style and general appearance to one in the National Museum of Korea, Seoul (accession number Sinsu 14492) and to another in the Harn Museum of Art in Gainesville, FL (2008.20), the Harn Museum example also associated with the school of Seung’il.
Robert D. Mowry
Alan J. Dworsky Curator of Chinese Art Emeritus,
Harvard Art Museums, and
Senior Consultant, Christie’s